Demanding Power: Do Protests Empower Citizens to Hold Governments Accountable over Energy?

Abstract

Energy protests have been recurrent and significant political events in the twenty-first century. Major episodes have occurred in both developed and developing countries; in contexts with strong and stable states (e.g., France, Chile), as well as in fragile and conflict-affected settings (e.g., Mozambique, Haiti); in energy-exporting countries, and those dependent on imports. These protests have ranged from localised demonstrations over electricity access to large-scale urban uprisings concerning fuel prices and transport fares. In some countries, multiple forms of protest have emerged, including those related to new energy deals, infrastructure projects, and transnational campaigns against fossil fuels. Why do people protest about energy, and what do these protests achieve? Despite their growing prominence, the analysis of energy protests remains relatively underdeveloped. This paper presents findings from research into this phenomenon. The interdisciplinary study synthesises detailed case studies of energy protests in Mozambique, Nigeria, and Pakistan, situating them within a broader global context through cross-country analysis. The research explores key questions: What political and economic conditions drive such protests? Do major protest episodes empower citizens to hold governments accountable for energy provision? How do external and transnational interests shape the conditions under which mass protests occur? The research is grounded in debates within contentious politics and social movement studies, particularly as they relate to governance and citizen participation in developing and fragile states. Energy protests provide a useful lens for understanding political opportunities for collective action in contexts where political and civic spaces are often constrained. They also offer insights into how public grievances influence policy and political processes in such environments. The findings contribute to ongoing discussions on energy justice, emphasising the importance of civic participation, transparency, and accountability in achieving equitable energy transitions. Furthermore, understanding energy protests is critical for informing research, policy, and practice related to fossil fuel subsidies and their reform. In many cases, large-scale protests against fuel price increases have delayed or blocked efforts to remove subsidies that are often considered regressive and fiscally unsustainable. Overall, these protests signal two key realities: first, that energy is a fundamental necessity for modern life; and second, that citizens often lack effective formal channels through which to express their grievances regarding energy access, pricing, and governance.